Phosphatidylcholine lipid liposomes as boundary lubricants in aqueous media

ABSTRACT

The invention provides a method for lubricating one or more surfaces, comprising applying gel-phase liposomes onto said one or more surfaces, wherein the temperature of said surface(s) at the time of lubrication is below the phase transition temperature T m  of said liposomes. The method can be used for lubricating non-biological surfaces, and also for lubricating the surfaces of a biological tissue in a mammalian subject, e.g., for treating joint dysfunction.

This application is the divisional of U.S. application Ser. No.13/704,866 filed Feb. 8, 2013, wherein 13/704,866 is the national stageentry of. PCT/IL2011/000447 filed Jun. 16, 2011 which is designated tothe U.S. and claims priority from provisional application 61/355,573filed Jun. 17, 2010, the entire contents of each of which are herebyincorporated by reference.

BACKGROUND

Liposomes are vesicles whose membranes in most cases are based onphospholipid bilayers. They are generally biocompatible and, whenmodified with other molecules, are widely used in clinical applications,primarily as drug delivery vehicles, as well as in gene therapy and fordiagnostic imaging.

WO 08/038292, by some of the present inventors, disclosed, inter alia,multilamellar vesicles (MLVs) of several phospholipids above theirliquid-crystalline-phase to gel-phase transition temperature Tm aspossible boundary lubricants in the articular cartilage environment.

Presently, there is a serious lack of good solutions to the problem ofboundary lubrication in aqueous media. Boundary lubrication in aqueousmedia is often problematic as water on its own is not a good lubricant,while common surfaces or surface coatings in water frequently exhibitquite high friction (with friction coefficients μ>0.01-0.05), especiallyat high pressures.

The problem is even more evident when extremely low friction isrequired, particularly at high pressures (up to 100 atmospheres or more)and at low sliding velocities. For example, Values of ca. 2×10⁻³ orlower have been measured between some physically-attached boundarylubricants, but these were at mean contact pressures of only up to 0.3MPa (3 atmospheres) or less. In Chen, M., Briscoe, W. H., Armes, S. P.,and Klein, J [Lubrication at Physiological Pressures by PolyzwitterionicBrushes, Science 323, 1698 (2009)] it is reported that boundarylubricants which were covalently grown on surfaces demonstrate lowfriction coefficients, around 10⁻³, up to 75 atmospheres pressure.

Vecchio, P.; Thomas, R.; Hills [B. A. Rheumatology 1999, 38(10),1020-1021] describe the injection of dipalmitoylphosphatidylcholine(DPPC) solutions in propylene glycol into joints.

U.S. Pat. No. 6,800,298 describes a lubricant composition comprisingdextran-based hydrogel with lipids.

There is a need for an alternative physically-attached boundarylubricant in aqueous media, which would have a low friction coefficienteven at contact pressures substantially higher than 0.3 MPa.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

It has now been surprisingly found that it is possible to use gel-phaseliposomes as lubricants. Liposomes are known to transform from their gel(solid) phase to liquid crystalline phase at a characteristictemperature designated T_(m), defined as the temperature at which themaximal change in the excess heat capacity (kcal/mol/deg) occurs. Thelubrication properties of gel phase liposomes, namely, liposomes appliedonto surfaces at a temperature which is lower than their T_(m), weretested and were found to be particularly good. It has been found thatgel-phase liposomes are especially useful for lubricating surfaces thatare subject to high pressure, up to 120 atmospheres (around 120 MPa) ormore. Notably, when the pressure exerted over the surface is above 30atmospheres (3 MPa), then the lubrication provided by the gel-phaseliposomes, is better than that of liquid-phase liposomes. Thus, thegel-phase liposomes may be used according to the invention for thetreatment of joint dysfunction, wherein the pressure within the jointreaches values in the range of 30 to 120 atmospheres (3-12 MPa).Characteristic pressures in joints are reported in the followingreferences:

1. Afoke, N. Y. P., Byers, P. D., and Hutton, W. C., Contact pressuresin the human hip joint. J. Bone Joint Surgery 69B, 536 (1987).

2. Hodge, W. A., Fuan, R. S., Carlson, K. L., Burgess, R. G., Harris, W.H., and Mann, R. W., Contact pressures in the human hip joint measuredin vivo. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 83, 2879 (1986).

As demonstrated in the experimental section below, gel-phase liposomesof different compositions and size characteristics can provide efficientlubrication in aqueous environments on solid surfaces on which theyspontaneously adsorb to form surface coatings. The lubrication(yielding, in most cases, values μ<ca. 1×10⁻³) occurs under pressures ofup to 120 atmospheres or more, and down to very low sliding velocities,with little apparent wear of the liposome surface coatings.

Thus, in a first aspect, the invention provides a method for lubricatingone or more non-biological surfaces (in particular negatively chargedsolid surfaces), comprising applying gel-phase liposomes onto said oneor more surfaces, wherein the temperature of said surface(s) at the timeof lubrication is below the phase transition temperature T_(m) of saidliposomes.

The invention also provides a method for lubricating one or moresurfaces of a biological tissue in a mammalian subject (for example, acartilage surface within a joint capsule), comprising applying gel-phaseliposomes onto said one or more surfaces, wherein the temperature ofsaid surface(s) at the time of lubrication is below the phase transitiontemperature T_(m) of said liposomes. The use of gel-phase liposomes forlubricating surfaces having a surface temperature which is below thephase transition temperature T_(m) of said liposomes, constitutesanother aspect of the invention. The invention also encompasses atherapeutic composition for lubricating the surface of a biologicaltissue in a mammalian subject, wherein said composition comprisesgel-phase liposomes and an aqueous carrier.

More specifically, the invention provides the use of gel-phase liposomesin the preparation of a therapeutic composition for the treatment ofjoint dysfunction in a mammalian subject by means of the lubrication ofcartilage surface(s) within the joint capsule, wherein the temperatureof said surfaces at the time of lubrication is below the phasetransition temperature T_(m) of said liposomes. The invention alsoprovides gel-phase liposomes for the treatment of joint dysfunction in amammalian subject by means of the lubrication of surface(s) within thejoint capsule, wherein the temperature of said surfaces at the time oflubrication is below the phase transition temperature T_(m) of saidliposomes. The maximal pressure within the joint is in the range of 30to 120 atmospheres (3-12 MPa). The carrier used for administering theliposomes to the mammalian subject is preferably an aqueous carrier(e.g., an aqueous-based buffer solution) free of organic co-solvents orextraneous organic compounds (other than of course the liposomes).

Gel-phase Liposomes to be used according to the invention are based onphosphocholine-containing lipids and mixtures thereof. However, it ispossible to combine lipids having polar head groups other thanphosphocholine in the gel-phase liposomes. Liposomes operable in theinvention have external (exposed at the outer liposome surface) polarhead groups which are composed of at least 95 mole % phosphocholinegroups, and of up to 5 mole % external non-phosphocholine head grouphaving an unperturbed-end-to-end radius in aqueous medium equal to orsmaller than about 1 nm, or cross-section parameter which is less than0.8 nm², (provided, of course that said liposomes are in their gel-phaseand have a T_(m) which is higher than the intended working temperature).

In contrast, liposomes in which the up to 5 mole % externalnon-phosphocholine head group units have an unperturbed-end-to-endradius (in the aqueous medium) which is larger than about 1 nm, are notsuitable for use as lubricant compositions since the systems formed byincubating the solid surfaces therein have a high friction coefficient.For example, liposomes in which the 5% of external non-phosphocholinehead groups were the PEG groups of DSPE-PEG2000, having anunperturbed-end-to-end radius (in aqueous medium) of about 4 nm,demonstrated poor lubrication properties, having friction coefficientsof 0.05 to 0.1 (Example C7, see below).

As noted above, the presence of head groups other than phosphocholineunits in the gel-phase liposomes is permitted, provided that theunperturbed-end-to-end radius of said non-phosphocholine groups is lessthan 1 nm, or their cross section is less than 0.8 nm².

The term “unperturbed-end-to-end radius” means the steric size of saidhead group when it is not subject to external constraints, and is usedherein in order to estimate the radius of non-phosphocholine head groupswhich are polymer chains (such as PEG chain in the case of DSPE-PEG2000lipid) and also for non-phosphocholine head groups which aremolecular/cationic entities (such as the TAP group in the1,2-dimyristoyl-3-trimethylammonium-propane (DMATP)).

By way of the example, the size of the charged head-group on the DMTAPis approximately 0.3-0.5 nm and its radius would be about half of that,say 0.2 nm. Thus, lipids which contain the TAP head group (and twohydrocarbon saturated chains) can be combined withphosphocholine-containing lipids to form liposomes which are suitablefor use in the invention.

An alternative way for estimating the size of the polar head group ofthe lipid is by means of its cross section parameter, as described byLewis, R. N. A. H., S. Tristram-Nagle, J. F. Nagle, and R. N.McElhaney[The thermodynamic phase behavior of cationic lipids:calorimetric, infrared spectroscopic and X-ray diffraction studies oflipid bilayer membranes composed of 1,2-di-O-myristoyl-3-N,N,N-trimethylaminopropane (DM-TAP). Biochim. Biophys. Acta. 1510:70-82,2001].

In the case of non-phosphocholine head groups which are polymer chainswith N backbone units, characteristic ratio C_(∞) and mean backbone unitsize x, the unperturbed-end-to-end radius R₀ is given by:R ₀=(NC _(∞))^(1/2) x

For the particular case of polyethylene glycol (PEG) of molecular weight2000, say, the number of backbone units is N=2000/(44/3), C_(∞)=4.9±0.1,and x≈0.15 nm, so that the unperturbed-end-to-end radius in this case isR₀=ca. 3.9 nm.

Preferably, the gel-phase liposomes used according to the inventioncomprise one or more phosphatidylcholine lipids, with the T_(m) valuesof the liposomes being not less than 40° C., preferably not less than45° C. Mixtures of different phosphatidylcholine lipids can be used toform the liposomes, with the molar ratio between the components of themixture being adjusted to produce liposomes having the desired T_(m)value [see Scott et al., Biophysical Journal (28), p. 117-132 (1979)].According to one embodiment of the invention, T_(m) is not less than 50°C., e.g., from 50 to 60° C. According to one embodiment, the hydrocarbontails of the phosphatidylcholine lipids are saturated and contain notless than 17 carbon atoms. In particular, it has now been found thatliposomes comprising hydrogenated soy phosphatidylcholine (HSPC),1,2-distearoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine (DSPC) anddipalmitoylphosphatidylcholine (DPPC) and mixtures thereof may act asefficient lubricants in aqueous media even at physiologically highpressures of up to 120 atmospheres (85% of the HSPC are DSPC and 15% arethe sum of 1 stearoyl 2-palmitoyl PC plus 1-palmitoyl 2-steroyl PC). TheT_(m) values for HSPC, DSPC and DPPC are 52.5° C., 55° C. and 41.4° C.,respectively. T_(m) values of various PC-based lipids may be found in“Thermotropic Phase Transitions of Pure Lipids in Model Membranes andTheir Modifications by Membrane Proteins”, John R. Silvius,Lipid-Protein Interactions, John Wiley &amp; Sons, Inc., New York, 1982,and also in the Lipid Thermotropic Phase Transition Data Base-LIPIDAT.

According to another preferred embodiment of the invention, theliposomes to be used are in the form of small unilamellar vesicles(SUV). For example, it has been shown that small unilamellar vesicles(SUVs) of hydrogenated soy phosphatidylcholine (HSPC) lipidsself-assembled in close-packed layers on solid surfaces, therebyreducing the coefficient μ of sliding friction between these surfacesdown to values μ≈10⁻⁴-2×10⁻⁵, at pressures of up to ca. 12 MPa (ca. 120atmospheres) and possibly higher. Such low values of the friction haveso far been attained in other physically-attached boundary lubricantsonly at mean contact pressures of up to 0.3 MPa or less, these beinglower by up to 40-fold or more than the pressures reached with thepresently disclosed liposome composition (12 MPa). According to anotherpreferred embodiment, the SUV liposomes have a mean diameter which issmaller than 100 nm. Good to excellent lubrication between solidsurfaces coated by SUVs of 1,2-distearoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine(DSPC) and by SUVs of 1,2-dipalmitoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine(DPPC), has also been achieved at comparably high pressures as seen inTable 1 and described below.

Thus, according to a preferred embodiment, at least 95% of the externalpolar head groups of the gel-phase liposomes used in the method of theinvention are phosphoryl choline head group, the liposomes being in theSUV form and having a mean diameter which is smaller than 100 nm.Preferably, these gel-phase SUV PC-based liposomes have a mean diameterranging from about 60 nm to about 80 nm, more preferably ranging fromabout 65 nm to about 75 nm.

Furthermore, it has been shown that multilamellar vesicles (MLVs) ofhydrogenated soy phosphatidylcholine (HSPC) lipids self-assembled onsolid surfaces, and effectively reduced the coefficient μ of slidingfriction between these surfaces down to values in the range of μ=7×10⁻³to 5×10⁻⁴, for both first and second approaches as pressures are up to 3Mpa (˜30 atm).

Thus, according to yet another preferred embodiment of the invention,the liposomes in the compositions described herein, are in the form ofmultilamellar vesicles (MLVs). Preferably, these liposomes have a meandiameter larger than 200 nm, yet more preferably larger than 500 nm, andmost preferably of about 1 micron and larger.

Preferred liposomes to be used according to the invention, for examplefor lubricating non-biological surfaces, consist of HSPC, DSPC or DPPClipids. These PC-based liposomes exhibit good to excellent lubricationresults under various conditions, as can be seen in Examples S1, S2, S3,S6, S10 and S11.

Another class of preferred liposomes to be used according to theinvention, for example for lubricating non-biological surfaces, is basedon a mixture comprising a first lipid, which isphosphocholine-containing lipid (e.g., HSPC, DSPC or DPPC, or theirmixtures) and a second lipid, which contains TAP hydrophilic head group,wherein the mole ratio between said first and second lipids is from 95:5to 99.9:0.1. The second lipid, namely, the TAP-containing lipid has twohydrocarbon chains which independently contain 14, 16 or 18 carbonatoms. Preferably, the TAP-containing liposome is selected from thegroup consisting of 1,2-ditetradecanoyl-3-trimethylammonium-propane(DMTAP), 1,2-dipalmitoyl-3-dimethylammonium-propane and1,2-disteraroyl-3-dimethylammonium-propane, which are also described as14:0 TAP, 16:0 TAP and 18:0 TAP, respectively, indicating that thelength of both chains of the lipid is the same (being 14, 16 and 18,respectively). The “mixed” liposome exhibits very good lubricationresults under various conditions, as can be seen in Examples S4 and S5.The mixed liposomes having the composition set for the above arebelieved to be novel and form a further aspect of the present invention.

It should be noted that the good lubrication results were obtained fordifferent aqueous mediums, for example in pure water, as well as inphysiological salt solution.

Furthermore, the good lubrication was obtained also when the surface ofthe liposomes was positively charged (for example, when some of thezwiterionic HSPC molecules were replaced by charged DMTAP cationiclipids).

It has been found that liposomes having positively charged surfaceshowed improved lubrication with the negatively-charged solid surfacesin water at high salt concentrations (for example, not less than 0.05Mof a 1:1 salt, e.g., not less than 0.15M), as compared to liposomeshaving positively charged surface used in water containing no addedsalt.

Thus, according to preferred embodiments of the invention, the gel-phaseliposomes to be used have positively charged surfaces.

As shown hereinbelow, the liposomes used according to the presentinvention adsorb spontaneously onto negatively charged solid surfaces inwater, to form close-packed boundary layers that provided uniquelyefficient lubrication, resulting in friction coefficients down to 2×10⁻⁵at pressures of more than 100 atmospheres (above 10 MPa). This extremelylow friction at such high pressures makes these liposomes extremelysuitable for providing efficient lubrication in aqueous media. It shouldbe understood, however, that the surfaces to be treated by the liposomesin accordance with the invention may be overall neutral, but havingdiscrete positive and negative regions, such that the liposomes attachto the negatively-charged regions, or even to overall-positively chargedsurfaces if there are also negatively charged patches on them onto whichthe liposomes may attach. Positively-charged surfaces can also betreated with gel-phase phosphatidylcholine liposomes with up to 5 mole %of negatively-charged lipids such as phosphatidic acid (PA),phopsphatidyl glycerol (PG), phopsphatidyl inositil (PI) andphosphatidylserine (PS).

Thus, according to another aspect of the invention, there is provided alubricant system comprising a plurality of liposomes being in theirgel-phase and further being spontaneously adsorbed on at least one oftwo negatively charged solid surfaces, in an aqueous medium. Thecharacteristics of the liposomes are as set forth above.

Suitable negatively charged solid surfaces include, but are not limitedto, glass, mica and cartilage.

For example, the gel-phase liposomes to be used according to theinvention proved as efficient lubricants when coated on one or two micasurfaces, having friction coefficients lower than 1×10⁻² and even lowerthan 5×10⁻³ and 15×10⁻⁴.

Thus, according to preferred embodiments of the invention, the lubricantsystem described herein has a coefficient of sliding friction betweenthe above-described surfaces which is less than about 1×10⁻² under apressure of at least 1 Mpa, in the aqueous medium.

The improved friction results were obtained even at high pressures (muchhigher than 0.3 MPa as known in the art for physically-attached boundarylubricants), namely pressures which were at least 1 Mpa, 3 Mpa, 6 Mpaand 10 Mpa, even reaching 12 MPA. It is believed that the improvedfriction shall be exhibited even at higher pressures.

Furthermore, the good lubrication under pressure is now maintainedrepeatedly, for a large number of additional back-and-forth slidingcycles. This phenomenon is important since under physiologicalsolutions, normal application of lubricants may involve very largenumbers of repetitive cycles. According to the present invention, notonly does the lubricant remain attached or adsorbed to the surface uponapplication of pressure, but it may remain so even after additionalsimilar pressure cycles.

These findings demonstrate that the liposomes described herein mayreduce friction between surfaces onto which they spontaneously adsorb,up to the maximal pressures pertaining in mammalian joints, to levelsthat are even lower than between healthy sliding articular cartilage.Such low friction between surfaces in aqueous media at these highpressures has not hitherto been attained by any physically-attachedboundary lubricant system.

Thus, according to another aspect of the invention, there is furtherprovided a method of decreasing the friction coefficient between twonegatively charged solid surfaces in aqueous medium to below about1×10⁻² under a pressure of at least 1 MPa, the method comprisingincubating one or both of the surfaces in a lubricant comprising aplurality of liposomes being in their gel-phase and dispersed in anaqueous medium. The characteristics of the liposomes are as set forthabove.

According to preferred embodiments of the invention, the method candecrease the coefficient of sliding friction to below about 5×10⁻³, andeven to below about 5×10⁻⁴.

Most advantageously, this can be achieved and maintained even at highpressures, preferably of at least 3 Mpa, and even at a pressure which isat least 10 MPa.

In order to effectively reduce the friction coefficient as describedherein, the liposome used is as described in detail hereinabove.Furthermore, the incubation is preferably conducted for at least 0.5hours, for example from 1.5 to 2 hours. However, it should be noted thatthe surfaces can be left under incubation for prolonged periods of time(for example several days) without adversely effecting the adsorption ofthe liposomes to the surfaces.

The incubation as described in the examples was conducted at about roomtemperature, but this can vary according to the desired application.

As already noted above, the gel-phase liposomes can also be used for thetreatment of joint dysfunction in a mammalian subject by means of thelubrication of surface(s) within the joint capsule, wherein thetemperature of said surfaces at the time of lubrication is below thephase transition temperature T_(m) of said liposomes. The gel-phaseliposomes may be used to treat, alleviate, retard, prevent, manage orcure any articular disorder or symptoms arising there from which isassociated with joint dysfunction. For the purposes of this disclosurethe term “articular disorder” shall be held to mean any affliction(congenital, autoimmune or otherwise), injury or disease of thearticular region which causes degeneration, pain, reduction in mobility,inflammation or physiological disruption and dysfunction of joints. Thedisorder may be associated with reduced joint secretion and lubricationas well as from complications of knee and hip replacement.

The joint in accordance with the invention may be any one of the knee,hip, ankle, shoulder, elbow, tarsal, carpal, interphalangeal andintervertebral.

Specific articular disorders include, but are not limited to,deficiencies of joint secretion and/or lubrication arising fromarthritis, including conditions of joint erosion in rheumatoidarthritis, osteoarthritis, osteoarthritis in rheumatoid arthritispatients, traumatic joint injury (including sports injury), locked joint(such as in temporomandibular joint (TMJ)), status post arthrocentesis,arthroscopic surgery, open joint surgery, joint (e.g. knee or hip)replacement in mammals, preferably humans. A specific disorder to betreated or prevented by the method of the invention is osteoarthritis.

The method of the present invention could be used as a prophylacticmeasure to prevent future damage or degeneration. For example, thegel-phase liposomes could be administered intra-articularly to athletesintermittently throughout their career to minimize the risk of stressrelated injury or cartilage degeneration.

The method of the present invention may be used exclusive of, or as anadjunct to, anti-inflammatory agents, analgesic agents, musclerelaxants, anti depressants, or agents that promote joint lubricationcommonly used to treat disorders associated with joint stiffness, suchas arthritis. A combined therapeutic approach is beneficial in reducingside effects associated with agents, such as non-steroidal,anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), commonly used to prevent, manage, ortreat disorders such as osteoarthritis associated with reduced jointlubrication. In addition to enhancing safety, a combined therapeuticapproach may also be advantageous in increasing efficacy of treatment.

The administration of the liposomes into an articular cavity of apatient may be by a method chosen from the group consisting ofintra-articular injection, arthroscopic administration or surgicaladministration.

In accordance with one embodiment, the liposomes are administered to themammalian subject using a physiologically acceptable carrier, such ashistidine buffer (HB).

The composition according to the invention is preferably in a formsuitable for administration by a route selected from intra-articularinjection, arthroscopic administration or surgical administration.

The amount of liposomes to be administered will vary depending on theliposome's composition, the disease, its severity and treatment regimen,as well as on the age, weight, etc., of the mammal to be treated. Theamount for purposes herein is determined by such considerations as maybe known in the art.

The amount must be effective to achieve an improvement in thelubrication of the treated joint, namely, to reduce friction between thecartilages forming the joint, the improvement may be exhibited byclinical tests as well as by an improvement in the well-being of thesubject undergoing said treatment (e.g. reduced pain in the afflictedjoint, improvement in mobility). The effective amount is typicallydetermined in appropriately designed clinical trials (dose rangestudies) and the person versed in the art will know how to properlyconduct such trials in order to determine the effective amount. Forexample, the concentration of the liposomes in the aqueous carrier maybe between 30 and 150 mM.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

Table 1 below summarizes the lubricant compositions prepared accordingto preferred embodiments of the invention, and adsorbed on one or twomolecularly smooth mica surfaces, as well as the lubrication propertiesof the obtained systems:

a) System S1, composed of two mica surfaces coated by small unilamellarvesicles (SUVs) of hydrogenated soy phosphatidylcholine (HSPC) liposomesin pure water. This system showed excellent levels of lubrication,having a friction coefficient μ≈10⁻⁴-2×10⁻⁵ up to pressures of 12 MPa(120 atmospheres) or more;

b) System S2, composed of a bare mica and a mica coated with SUV HSPCliposomes in pure water. This system showed, for regular high surfacecoverage, very good levels of lubrication, μ≈10⁻⁴, up to pressures ofca. 6 Mpa.

c) System S3, composed of SUV HSPC liposomes in physiological saltconcentration of 150 mM NaNO₃. This system showed good level oflubrication between two coated mica surfaces, μ≈2*10⁻⁴-10⁻² at pressuresup to 6 MPa.

d) System S4, composed of positively charged SUV HSPC/DMTAP liposomes inwater. This system showed very good lubrication between two coated micasurfaces, μ≈10⁻⁴, up to pressures of ˜3 MPa; for one coated surface vs.mica, μ≈3.5*10⁻², at pressures up to ˜1.3 MPa;

e) System S5, composed of positively charged SUV HSPC/DMTAP liposomes inphysiological salt concentration of 150 mM NaNO₃; This system showedvery good levels of lubrication between two coated surfaces, withμ≈2*10⁻⁴-3×10⁻³ up to pressures of ˜6 Mpa,

f) System S6, composed of multilamellar vesicles (MLVs) of HSPCliposomes. This system showed good lubrication between one coatedsurface and a bare mica surface, μ≈5*10⁻⁴-7*10⁻³ at pressures up to 30Mpa,

g) System S10, composed of two surfaces coated by SUVs of1,2-distearoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine (DSPC) liposome in purewater. This system showed excellent levels of lubrication, having afriction coefficient μ≈1.5×10⁻⁴-7×10⁻⁵ up to pressures of 11 Mpa (110atmospheres) or more; and

h) System S11 composed of two surfaces coated by SUVs of1,2-dipalmitoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine (DPPC) liposome in purewater. This system showed diverse values of effective frictioncoefficient μ and maximal applied pressure (before friction coefficientis increased). At the optimal contact points, the system showedexcellent levels of lubrication, having a friction coefficient μ≈2×10⁻⁴up to pressures of 12 MPa (120 atmospheres) or more. However, due to therange of results over different contact positions and a tendency of thefriction coefficient to increase at second and more entries to contactpoint, the overall lubrication efficiency of this system is estimated asgood, level 3 (Table 1) (rather than excellent, level 5).

In addition, Table 2 below shows some comparative lubricant compositionsadsorbed on one or two molecularly smooth mica surfaces, and thelubrication properties of the obtained systems:

a) System C7, composed of SUV PEGylated-HSPC liposomes in water, is acomparative example. This system showed poor lubrication levels, withμ≈0.05-0.1 at pressures up to ca. 2.5 Mpa; and

System C8, composed of SUV of1-palmitoyl-2-oleoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine (POPC) liposomes inwater, is another comparative example; This system showed poorlubrication levels, for 2^(nd) approach μ≈0.1 up to 3 MPa pressures.

In both tables, Liposomes lubrication efficiency was scored by theinventors according to the shear reduction measured in the experimentalsystem—the surface force balance. Value of 5 was given to the bestlubrication capability as 1 to the worst.

TABLE 1 Lubrication efficiency Liposome μ Short Chemical SUV/ diameterT_(m) Surface P_(max) Relative Friction name composition MLV [nm] [° C.]charge Medium [atm] efficiency coefficient S1 HSPC L-α- SUV  65 ± 3 52.5zwiterionic pure ~120 5 excellent phosphatidylcholine, water lubricationhydrogenated (Soy) 2 × 10⁻⁵ − 10⁻⁴ (both surfaces coated) S2 HSPC L-α-SUV  65 ± 3 52.5 zwiterionic pure  ~60 4 very good phosphatidylcholine,water lubrication hydrogentated (Soy) 10⁻⁴ (one surface only coated) S3HSPC L-α- SUV  75 ± 3 52.5 zwiterionic 150 nM  ~60 3 goodphosphatidylcholine, NaNO₃ lubrication hydrogenated (Soy) 2 × 10⁻⁴ −10⁻² S4 HSPC: L-α- SUV  65 ± 3 52.5 cationic pure  ~30* 4 very goodDMTAP/ phosphatidylcholine and water lubrication 95:5 hydrogenated(Soy): 32 10⁻⁴* mole 1,2-dimyristoyl-3- ratio trimethylammonium- propane(chloride salt) S5 HSPC: L-α- SUV  65 ± 3 52.5 cationic 150 mM  ~60 4very good DMTAP/ phosphatidylcholine and NaNO₃ lubrication 95:5hydrogenated (Soy): 32 2 × 10⁻⁴ − mole 1,2-dimyristoyl-3- 3 × 10⁻³ ratiotrimethylammonium- propane (chloride salt) S6 HSPC L-α- MLV 1240 ± 57052.5 zwiterionic pure  ~30 3 good phosphatidylcholine, water lubricationhydrogentated (Soy) 5 × 10⁻⁴ − 7 × 10⁻³ S10 DSPC 1,2-distearoyl-sn- SUV 65 ± 10 55 zwiterionic pure ~110 5 Excellent glycero-3- waterlubrication phosphocholine 1.5 × 10⁻⁴ − 7 × 10⁻⁵ S11 DPPC1,2-dipalmitoyl-sn- SUV  65 ± 10 41.4 zwiterionic pure ~120^(#) 3^(#)good glycero-3- water lubrication^(#), phosphocholine 2 × 10⁻⁴ *Thesevalues are for the symmetric system, where both surfaces are coated withliposome layer(s). For the asymmetric case of coated surface against abare mica, the values show a much less efficient lubrication. ^(#)Thesevalues represent the lowest friction coefficients (2 × 10⁻⁴), measuredat the maximal pressure (~120 atm) applied in this system (DPPC-SUV onsolid mica surfaces). Because this DPPC-SUV system showed a widerdiversity of values relative to the other systems described, and atendency of μ to increase at subsequent approaches to contact point, therelative efficiency is given as 3, and the friction coefficient isdescribed as good lubrication (rather than 5 and excellent lubricationwhich would be suggested by the friction-coefficient/pressure valuesshown).

TABLE 2 Lubrication efficiency Liposome μ Short Chemical SUV/ diameterT_(m) Surface P_(max) Relative Friction name composition MLV [nm] [° C.]charge Medium [atm] efficiency coefficient C7 HSPC:L-α-phosphatidylcholine SUV ~70 52.5 Slightly pure ~10 1 poor DSPEhydrogenated (Soy): 1,2- and negative water lubrication PEG2000distearoyl-sn-glycero-3- 75*** 0.05-0.1 95:5 phosphoethanolamine-N- mole[amino(polyethylene ratio glycol)-2000](ammonium salt) C8 POPC1-palmitoyl-2-oleoyl-sn- SUV   66 ± 3 −3 zwiterionic pure ~10* 1 poorglycero-3- water lubrication phosphocholine 0.1** *These values are forthe symmetric system, where both surfaces are coated with liposomelayer(s). For the asymmetric case of coated surface against a bare mica,the values show a much less efficient lubrication. **These values weremeasured upon second entries and more to the contact point. Upon firstentry to contact point higher pressures of ~30 atm were measured,related to lower values of μ of 3 × 10⁻³. These changes were related todamaging and squeezing the soft liposome layers attached on the surface.***This value applies for DSPE with no attached PEG.

Methods of Preparation and Lubrication Measurements

Surface Force Balance (SFB): The SFB and its protocols for measuringnormal and shear forces have been described in detail by Klein, J. andKumacheva, E., Simple liquids confined to molecularly thin layers. I.Confinement-induced liquid to solid phase transitions. J. Chem: Phys.108 (16), 6996(1998). Experimental runs were carried out by compressingthe surfaces to progressively higher pressures, then decompressing byseparating them, following which shear forces were measured on secondand (in several cases) subsequent compressions at the same contactpoint, before moving to a different contact point. The results in eachcase were based on several independent experiments (different pairs ofmica surfaces, different. PC-SUV batches), each with multiple contactpoints. All measurements were carried out at 23.5±0.5° C.

Example S1 Preparation of Liposomes in Water and CharacterizationThereof

Multilamellar vesicles (MLVs) of HSPC (M_(w)=762.10 g/mol, >99% purity,from Lipoid, Ludwigshafen, Germany) were prepared by hydrating thephospholipids in pure water at 62° C. (above the HSPC gel-to-liquidcrystalline phase transition temperature, T_(m)=52.5° C.). The MLVs weredownsized to form SUVs at a HSPC concentration of 30 mM, by stepwiseextrusion through polycarbonate membranes from 400-nm to50-nm-pore-sizes at 65° C., using a Lipex 100 mL extruder system(Northern Lipids, Vancouver, Canada. Water used (also for the SFBexperiments) was purified (Milli-Q® Gradient A10 or Barnsted NanoPuresystems) to 18.2 MΩ cm resistance with total organic content levels of3-4 ppb (Milli-Q) or <ca.1 ppb (Barnstead). The pH of the water was 5.8due to ions leached from glassware and dissolved atmospheric CO₂.Liposomes were characterized for size distribution by dynamic lightscattering using an ALV-NIBS High Performance Particle Sizer (Langen,Germany) at scattering angle of 173°. Over 98% of the freshly-preparedliposomes were 65±3 nm in diameter.

Coating of solid mica surfaces with liposomes prepared according toExample S1: Freshly cleaved, atomically smooth mica surfaces wereincubated for 1.5-2 hours at 23±2° C., in a dispersion consisting of360±10 μL of the HSPC-SUVs prepared as described in Example S1 in 10 mlwater, whereon spontaneous adsorption of the liposomes took place. Thesurfaces were then washed (1 minutes gentle waving in excess of purewater or 5 minutes standing in pure water) to remove excess,non-adsorbed liposomes and rapidly mounted in the SFB (or taken forcryo-SEM). ensuring they remained wetted throughout. AFM (NT-MDT,Integra topography images were taken in water in tapping mode usingsilicon nitride tips of 3 μm height, spring-constant 0.5 N/m (Olympus,OMCL-TR800PSA). Cryo-SEM samples of HSPC-SUV-coated mica, prepared asdescribed above, were frozen by plunging into liquid ethane andtransferred to a BAF 60 freeze fracture device (Bal-Tec AG,Liechtenstein). Water was sublimed at −80° C. for 2 hrs. Samples wererotary-shadowed with 3 nm Pt at an angle of 45°. Samples weretransferred to an Ultra 55 SEM (Zeiss, Germany) using a VCT 100vacuum-cryo transfer system (Bal-Tec AG, Liechtenstein) and observed atvoltages of 2.5-5 kV.

It should be noted that as a comparative example, the experiment wasrepeated by using a mica surface on which a positively charged Chitosanpolymer was adsorbed, thereby rendering the mica surface positively(instead of negatively) charged. HSPC liposomes did not adsorb onto sucha surface.

Characterization of HSPC-liposome coated Mica: Freshly cleaved micasurfaces were incubated in a dispersion of HSPC-SUV with a unimodal sizedistribution (diameter 65 nm), prepared as described herein, then rinsedand mounted in a surface force balance (SFB) filled with pure water.Similar liposome-coated mica surfaces were imaged using atomic forcemicroscopy (AFM) and cryo-scanning-electron-microscopy (cryo-SEM), asshown in FIG. 1 . The cryo-SEM image shows a honeycomb patterncharacteristic of flattened close-packed spheres, overlaid by a loose,sparse layer of individual liposomes, which were not fully removed bythe rinsing following the incubation. The AFM image (inset) shows thatthe liposomes are flattened by the adsorption from their unperturbeddispersion diameter to ca. 20 nm.

Lubrication: Normal and shear forces, F_(n)(D) and F_(s)(v_(s), D)respectively, between the interacting, liposome-coated mica surfaces asa function of their closest separation D and sliding velocity v_(s),were determined in the SFB. F_(n)(D) profiles are shown in FIG. 2 . Atlarge separations the forces decayed exponentially with D, and areattributed to double-layer electrostatic repulsions arising from theresidual charge on the interacting surfaces.

The shear or frictional forces F_(s) transmitted between the surfaces asthey were made to slide past each other were determined at differentcompressions (mean pressures P=(F_(n)/A) where A is the measured contactarea, up to ca. 12 MPa); sliding amplitudes Δx₀ (up to ca. 1 μm); andsliding velocities v_(s) (5-2.10³ nm/s). They were recorded directly asa series of shear-force vs. time traces as shown in FIG. 3 . F_(s)values at all pressures, shear amplitudes and shear velocities studiedwere constant throughout a given trace, indicating the stability of thelubricating layers over the range of tested parameters.

The F_(s) vs. F_(n) results are summarized in FIGS. 4A and 4B. Thefrictional forces on a first approach of the surfaces, empty symbols inthe inset to FIG. 4A, correspond to friction coefficientsμ=(∂F_(s)/∂F_(n)) in the range μ=(2×10⁻³-5×10⁻⁴) as the normal pressureincreases to ca. 6 MPa. These forces, however, are systematically muchsmaller, at similar pressures, on a second and subsequent compressionsat a given contact point, as shown by the solid symbols in the main FIG.4A (and inset), becoming lower than the noise level of the SFB up topressures of ca. 1 MPa. At higher loads the shear forces revealextremely low friction coefficients, down to μ=(2×10⁻⁵), as shown by thedashed lines in FIG. 4A, up to the highest mean pressures attained inthis study, P=ca. 12 MPa. The dependence of F_(s) on V_(s) is shown inFIG. 4B for different high pressures, indicating, within the scatter,little variation in friction over nearly 3 orders-of-magnitude insliding velocities (5-2.10³ nm/s).

The strong reproducibility of the friction, on multiple approaches atthe same contact point suggests that the HSPC-SUVs retain theirstructural integrity up to the highest pressures tested, even undershear. The limiting separation at D_(hw)=21±2 nm at the highestcompressions corresponds to a thickness of some 4 bilayers of the HSPCphospholipids, consistent with two essentially flattened SUV layers.

Example 2 Coating of One Solid Mica Surface with Liposomes

In another experiment the interactions between a bare mica surface and amica surface coated with SUV HSPC liposomes prepared in pure water(according to Example S1) was tested. In this experiment SUV-HSPCliposomes were adsorbed to a single mica sheet which was brought intocontact with an atomically smooth mica sheet, while measuring the forceas a function of the distance between the surfaces. Two differentsurface coverages were obtained due to a different washing techniqueafter the adsorption procedure. A more vigorous wash which left largeareas of bare mica—is referred as ‘b’, and a gentle wash procedure thatlead to a dense surface is referred as ‘a’.

This system showed, for high surface coverage, very good levels oflubrication, μ≈10⁻⁴, up to pressures of ca. 6 Mpa, and for the lowsurface coverage (namely after extensive washings) showed high frictionat pressures higher than 1 MPa.

Example S3 Preparation of Liposomes in Salt Environment

The same process described above (S1/S2) was repeated with themodification that the liposomes were prepared in 150 mM NaNO₃(Fluka, >99.999% purity) rather than in pure water. Liposomes werecharacterized for size distribution by dynamic light scattering using anALV-NIBS High Performance Particle Sizer (Langen, Germany) at ascattering angle of 173°. Over 98% of the freshly-prepared liposomeswere 75±3 nm in diameter.

Coating of Solid Mica Surfaces with Liposomes Prepared by Example S3:

HSPC-SUV were adsorbed on atomically smooth mica surface by placingfreshly cleaved mica in 10 ml 150 mM NaNO₃ and then adding 360±10 μL ofthe liposome dispersion (of concentration of 30 mM) for 1.5-2 hours ofincubation. Then mica surfaces were washed to remove excess,non-adsorbed liposomes by placing the adsorbed surfaces in a beakerfilled with 150 mM NaNO₃ for a few minutes along with a delicate shakemotion. All preparations were done in a laminar hood to preventcontamination.

Results

As summarized in Table 1, good lubrication was obtained between twosurfaces coated with liposomes prepared as above, with μ=2×10⁻⁴-10⁻² atpressures up to 60 atmospheres.

Example S4 Preparation of HSPC/DMTAP Liposome Mixtures in Pure WaterEnvironment

Hydrogenated Soy phosphocholine (HSPC, Mw=762.10 g/mol, Tm 52.50°C., >99% purity) was purchased from Lipoid (Ludwigshafen, Germany).1,2-ditetradecanoyl-3-trimethylammonium-propane (chloride salt) (DMTAP,Mw=590.361 g/mol) was purchased from Avanti Polar Lipids, Inc.(Alabaster, Ala. USA).

A mixture of HSPC and DMTAP (in a 95:5 mole ratio) was dissolved in hotethanol to a concentration of 0.45 w/v. This solution was injected intopure water at temperature of 62° C. (above the gel-to-liquid crystallinephase transition temperature, Tm, of HSPC, 52.5° C.) in order to hydratethe lipids and form a dispersion of multilamellar liposomes, MLV atfinal concentration of 30 mM phospholipids (PL). Water was treated witha Barnstead Nanopure system. The resistance of water was 18.2 MΩ cm withtotal organic compound (TOC)<ca.1 ppb (Barnstead). MLV were downsized toform small unilamellar vesicles (SUV), 65 nm in diameter, at aconcentration of 15 mM, by stepwise extrusion through polycarbonatemembranes starting with a 400-nm and ending with 50-nm-pore-sizemembrane, using a Lipex 100 mL extruder system (Northern Lipids,Vancouver, Canada).

Liposomes were characterized for size distribution by dynamic lightscattering using an ALV-NIBS High Performance Particle Sizer (Langen,Germany) at a scattering angle of 173°. Over 98% of the freshly-preparedliposomes were 75±3 nm in diameter.

The zeta potential of liposomes in pure water was 36.5 mV.

Coating of Solid Mica Surfaces with Liposomes Prepared by Example S4:

Cryo-SEM image of a mica surface covered with SUV HSPC/DMTAP liposomesin pure water showed that liposome adsorbed on a mica surface in notclose-packed coverage.

Normal force measurements between two opposing layers of HSPC/DMTAP inwater revealed increased long range repulsion starting from D=250±50 nmdown to a hard wall separation of 10±2 nm. Normal force measurementsbetween one mica surface covered with HSPC/DMTAP liposomes against baremica show repulsion which starts from D=150±75 nm down to a hard wallseparation of 6±1 nm.

On second approach to the same contact point a higher normal force wasmeasured for the same surface separation D. In the HSPC/DMTAP vs. baremica system, a jump out was observed.

Shear measurements of 2 HSPC/DMTAP coated mica surfaces in pure watershow no response to shear up to pressures of 25±6 atm. A shear tracetest demonstrated the low Fs as P<˜30 atm.

Shear measurements of 1 HSPC/DMTAP coated surface vs. bare mica in purewater showed rigid coupling already in pressures of ˜10 atm.

Fs vs. Fn for 1 HSPC/DMTAP coated surface vs. bare mica gave effectivefriction coefficient of 0.035, and for two-HSPC/DMTAP coated surfacesgave effective friction coefficient of 0.0001 for the higher loadregion.

Example S5 Preparation of HSPC/DMTAP Liposome Mixtures in SaltEnvironment

The same process described above (S4) was repeated with the modificationthat the liposomes were prepared in 150 mM NaNO₃ (Fluka, >99.999%purity) rather than in pure water using four dialysis steps at 4° C.

Liposomes were characterized for size distribution by dynamic lightscattering using an ALV-NIBS High Performance Particle Sizer (Langen,Germany) at a scattering angle of 173°. Over 98% of the freshly-preparedliposomes were 61.9 nm in diameter.

The zeta potential of liposomes was 4.18 mV after replacing the externalmedium with 150 mM NaNO₃.

Coating of Solid Mica Surfaces with Liposomes Prepared by Example S5:

HSPC/DMTAP SUV were adsorbed on atomically smooth mica surface byplacing freshly cleaved mica in 10 ml 150 mM NaNO₃ salt solution andthen adding 720±20 μL of the liposome dispersion for 1 hour ofincubation. After 1 hour the mica surfaces were placed in 400 ml beakerof 150 mM NaNO₃ for 1-2 minutes in order to remove excess, non-adsorbedliposomes.

Cryo-SEM samples (mica surfaces covered with HSPC:DMTAP 95:5 liposomes)were prepared as described above, with additional rinsing step byplacing the sample in pure water for few seconds in order to removesalt. Samples were frozen by plunging into liquid ethane and transferredto a BAF 60 freeze fracture device (BAl-Tec AG, Liechtenstein). Waterwas sublimed in the BAF 60 at a temperature of −100 degrees for 1 hour.Pt cover of the samples by rotary shadowing of 1.5 nm followed by 1.5 nmof Pt in an angle of 45 degrees. Samples were transferred to an Ultra 55SEM (Zeiss, Germany) using a VCT 100 vacuum-cryo transfer system(Bal-Tec AG, Liechtenstein) and observed at voltages of 2.5 to 5 kV.Cryo-SEM imaging of the liposomes showed that the HSPC/DMTAP liposomesindeed adsorbed onto the mica to form a dense carpet on the surface. Theliposomes did not fuse but remained separated from one another, whereeach liposome had a mean diameter of ca. 64 nm (in the range of 35 nm to92 nm).

Normal force profiles between the two mica surfaces covered withHSPC/DMTAP liposomes immersed in 150 mM NaNO₃ solution showed nointeraction down to surface separation of 90±30 nm. Then, repulsionforce evolves increasing rapidly as surfaces are forced to approach oneanother. At the highest normalized loads of 2 N/m corresponding topressures of ca. 6 MPa the surfaces reached hard wall separation of 31±2nm. On the second approach to the same contact point, a higher repulsionforce was measured for a given surface separation D.

The effective, friction coefficient μ=∂Fs/∂Fn was calculated to be inthe range of μ=3×10⁻³-2×10⁻⁴ as the normal pressure increased to about 6MPa.

Example S6 Preparation Of MLV HSPC Liposomes in Water, Characterizationthereof and Solid Surfaces Coated by it

Hydrogenated Soy phosphocholine (HSPC, Mw=762.10 g/mol, Tm 52.50°C., >99% purity) was purchased from Lipoid (Ludwigshafen, Germany).0.9145 gr HSPC were dissolved in hot ethanol to a concentration of 0.45w/v. This solution was injected into pure water at temperature of 62° C.(above the gel-to-liquid crystalline phase transition temperature, Tm,of HSPC, 52.5° C.) in order to hydrate the lipids and form a 40 mldispersion of multilamellar liposomes, MLV at final concentration of 30mM phospholipids (PL). Water was treated with a Barnstead Nanopuresystem. The resistance of water was 18.2 MΩ cm with total organiccompound (TOC)<ca.1 ppb (Barnstead). MLV HSPC mean radius size of1.24±0.57 μm was measured with particle size analyzer LS 13 320 equippedwith the PIDS unit which can determine particle size at the range of 40nm to 2.0 mm (Beckman Coulter).

Normal force measurements between mica surface covered with HSPC MLVsliposomes in opposing to a bare mica surface in pure water revealrepulsion starting from D=1250±250 nm. The measured normal force in thesecond approach to a contact point was lower then what was measured onthe first approach to the point for a given surface separation D.Contact hard wall position value was found to be around 70 nm. However,during shear this value was reduced—after 12 minutes of shear the hardwall value was reduced by 3.5 nm.

Shear force measurements between a mica surface covered with HSPC MLVsliposomes in opposing to a bare mica surface in pure water at differentsurface separation D and applied normal force (pressure) show that asimilar shear force was measured during the first approach to a contactpoint and on during the second approach.

From the plot of Fs vs. Fn the effective friction coefficient μ wasdeduced to be in the range of μ=7×10⁻³ to 5×10⁻⁴, for both first andsecond approaches as pressures are up to ˜30 atm.

Example S10 Preparation of SUV-DSPC Liposomes in Pure Water,Characterization thereof and Solid Surfaces Coated by it

MLV-DSPC liposomes (DSPC, Mw=790.145 g/mol, Tm 55° C., >99% purity, fromLipoid, Ludwigshafen, Germany) were prepared by hydrating thephospholipids in pure water at around 65° C. (above the gel-to-liquidcrystalline phase transition temperature). The MLVs were downsized toform SUVs at a final concentration of 15 mM, by stepwise extrusionthrough polycarbonate membranes from 400-nm to 50-nm-pore-sizes at 65°C., using a Lipex 100 mL extruder system (Northern Lipids, Vancouver,Canada. Water used (also for the SFB experiments) was purified (BarnstedNanoPure systems or milli-Q gradient A10) to 18.2 MΩ cm resistance withtotal organic content levels of 3-4 ppb (Milli-Q) or <ca.1 ppb(Barnstead). The pH of the water was 5.8 due to ions leached fromglassware and dissolved atmospheric CO₂. Liposomes were characterizedfor size distribution by dynamic light scattering using an ALV-NIBS HighPerformance Particle Size (Langen, Germany) at a scattering angle of173°. Over 98% of the freshly-prepared liposomes were 65±10 nm indiameter. The normal force profiles were similar in range and magnitudeto those described for HSPC-SUV in example S1 above (e.g. FIG. 2 ). Theshear traces and resulting load vs. friction data are shown in FIGS. 5Aand 5B, revealing excellent lubrication up to high pressures (>100atms). Cryo-SEM micrographs of the DSPC-SUV on mica revealedclose-packed layers on the surface.

Example S11 Preparation of SUV-DPPC Liposomes in Pure Water,Characterization thereof and Solid Surfaces Coated by it

MLV-DPPC liposomes (DPPC, Mw=734.1, Tm 41.4° C., >99% purity, fromLipoid, Ludwigshafen, Germany) were prepared by hydrating thephospholipids in pure water at 55° C. (above the gel-to-liquidcrystalline phase transition temperature). The MLVs were downsized toform SUVs at a final concentration of 15 mM, by stepwise extrusionthrough polycarbonate membranes from 400-nm to 50-nm-pore-sizes ataround 60° C., using a Lipex 100 mL extruder system (Northern Lipids,Vancouver, Canada. Water used (also for the SFB experiments) waspurified (Barnsted NanoPure systems or milli-Q gradient A10) to 18.2 MΩcm resistance with total organic content levels of 3-4 ppb (Milli-Q) or<ca.1 ppb (Barnstead). The pH of the water was 5.8 due to ions leachedfrom glassware and dissolved atmospheric CO₂. Liposomes werecharacterized for size distribution by dynamic light scattering using anALV-NIBS High Performance Particle Size (Langen, Germany) at ascattering angle of 173°. Over 98% of the freshly-prepared liposomeswere 65±10 nm in diameter. Normal force profiles on first approach seton at a range and of magnitude similar, though somewhat smaller, tothose for HSPC-SUV (FIG. 2 ), and shear traces at some of these pointsrevealed very low friction (CoF down to 2×10⁻⁴ or even lower) atpressures up to 120 atms (12 MPa). The distance of closest approach atthese highest pressures and shear were in the range 10-15 nm. Onsubsequent approaches at a given contact point the pressures that couldbe applied, prior to higher friction setting on, were significantlylower. The overall picture therefore was that despite the optimallow-friction, high-pressure values, in View of the range of results, theDPPC-SUV liposomes on solid surfaces were designated good, level 3(rather than excellent, level 5) lubricants, as explained followingTable 1 for S11.

These results relate to good to excellent boundary lubrication of solidsurfaces by two different SUV gel-phase liposomes additional to theHSPC, consisting of DPPC (S11), with Tm=41.4° C., and of DSPC (S10)which has a Tm=55° C. FIGS. 5A and 5B show the friction traces and thefriction vs. load plot for the DSPC-SUV liposome and indicate the verylow friction coefficient even up to 100 or more atms, at around roomtemperature (Troom=25° C., clearly much lower than Tm). In addition,there are traces for the DSPC-SUV that show clearly that the frictionafter very long sliding—an hour or so—remains very low, indicating thatwear is very low: this is a qualitatively new and very importantindication, showing that even after thousands of back-and-forth cyclesthe lubricating layer retains its integrity and efficiency.

Comparative Examples Comparative Example C7 Preparation of SUV HSPC/PEGLiposome Mixtures in Water, Characterization Thereof and Solid SurfacesCoated by it

SUV HSPC/PEG liposome mixtures in water were prepared as a comparativeexample, since the PEG external head groups have an end-to-end radiuswhich is larger than 1 nm (being 4 nm). The HSPC/PEG liposomes wereprepared and characterized as described in Langmuir 21, 2560 (2005).

Cryo-SEM images of mica surfaces covered with HSPC/PEG liposomes showliposomes indeed adsorbed onto mica surface. Normal force profilesbetween two SUV HSPC/PEG coated mica surfaces across pure water showrepulsion from ˜100 nm. Hard wall of 10±4 nm was reached by increasingthe normal load. At some contact points at higher pressures of more than˜21 atm, the adsorbed layers were removed from the internal gap, and asurface separation of D=+0.8 nm.

Shear traces show that Fs increase along with the rise in pressure suchthat for pressure of ˜25±5 atm., the two surfaces no longer slided onepast the other but they move together in tandem so that no furthersliding between them occurred. The effective friction coefficient up tothat point was in the range of 0.05-0.03.

Comparative Example C8 Preparation of SUV POPC Liposomes in Water,Characterization thereof and Solid Surfaces Coated by it

SUV POPC liposomes in water were prepared as a comparative example,since the obtained liposome has a Tm which is smaller than the measuringtemperature, being smaller than about 15° C. (being −3° C.).1-palmitoyl-2-oleoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine (POPC, Mw=760.076g/mol, Tm −3° C., >99% purity) was purchased from Lipoid (Ludwigshafen,Germany). 0.456 gr POPC were dissolved in hot ethanol to a concentrationof 0.45 w/v. This solution was injected into pure water at temperatureof 250° C. (above the gel-to-liquid crystalline phase transitiontemperature, Tm, of POPC, −3° C.) in order to hydrate the lipids andform a dispersion of multilamellar liposomes, MLV at final concentrationof 30 mM phospholipids (PL). Water was treated with a Barnstead Nanopuresystem. The resistance of water was 18.2 MΩ cm with total organiccompound (TOC)<ca.1 ppb (Barnstead). MLV were downsized to form smallunilamellar vesicles (SUV), ca. 68 nm in diameter, by stepwise extrusionthrough polycarbonate membranes starting with a 400-nm and ending with50-nm-pore-size membrane, using a Lipex 100 mL extruder system (NorthernLipids, Vancouver, Canada).

Liposomes were characterized for size distribution by dynamic lightscattering using Malvern Zetasizer—nano series (Malvern InstrumentLimited-UK) at a scattering angle of 173°. 100% of the liposomes were68.8 nm in diameter.

Normal force measurements between two opposing layers of POPC in purewater revealed repulsion starting from D=100±20 nm down to a hard wallseparation of 10.5±1 nm. Upon separation and reentering the contactpoint the normal force profile is shifted in the repulsion region suchthat for a given surface separation D, Fn/R is higher on the secondapproach then the first approach. A jump out from a distance ofDj=17.3±3.5 nm was observed while separating the two surfaces fromcontact. The surface tension r was deduced from the jump out separation,distance to be T=6.1±3.1 mN/m both on first and second separation fromthe contact point.

Shear measurements were preformed between two opposing adsorbed layersof POPC at different surface separation D and applied normal force(pressure). Traces show that the shear force is higher upon secondapproach to a contact point then the first approach. On first approachthe friction force remains low for pressures values of P<˜25 atm; onsecond approach the corresponding pressure to reach such low frictionforce values are much lower P<˜10 atm.

During shear, it occurred that the measured friction force increaseddramatically from a low friction force that has a sliding trace shape,into a rigid coupling of the two surfaces of a triangular trace shape,which means the friction was so high that they were no longer sliding.

From the plot of Fs vs. Fn it can be deduced that the effective frictioncoefficient μ for the first approach is μ=3×10⁻³, but from the secondapproach the friction coefficient increased to μ=1×10⁻¹.

The friction was measured between mica surfaces each coated with a layerof POPC SUVs (which, unlike the similarly-sized HSPC-SUVs, are in theliquid-crystalline phase at room temperature, Tm(POPC)=−3° C.). It wasfound that such layers provided poor lubrication (friction coefficientsup to μ=0.1) at pressures of just 1 MPa. Force profiles suggested thatat higher pressures the POPC-SUVs had collapsed and were being partlysqueezed out from between the surfaces, attributed to the lower rigidity(higher fluidity) of these liquid-crystalline-phase vesicles, resultingin a less stable phosphocholine lubricating layer at high pressures.

Example T1 Testing in Biological Systems

Materials and Methods

Lipids. Table 1 describes the lipids (>98% pure) used in thisexperiment.

Hyaluronic Acid (HA). A linear heteropolysaccharide with repeating3-O-(β-D-glucuronido)-N-acetyl-D-glucosamine units linked by (β1-4)hexosaminidic bonds, sourced from rooster combs, having an averagemolecular weight of (1-4)×10⁶ (Sigma) was dissolved in histidine buffer(HB) to a concentration of 5 mg/ml.

Water. Water used was purified Barnsted NanoPure systems to 18.2 MΩ cmresistance with total organic content levels of <ca.1 ppb.

Liposomes. Multilamellar vesicles (MLV) composed of purePhosphatidylcholines (PCs): POPC, DMPC and HSPC, were prepared byhydrating the lipids in at least 5° C. above the lipid T_(M). To getsmall unilamellar vesicles (SUV, <100 nm), MLVs were downsized bystepwise extrusion through polycarbonate membranes starting with a400-nm and ending with 50-nm-pore-size membrane, using a Lipex 100 mLextruder system (Northern Lipids, Vancouver, Canada), heated at least 5°C. above the lipid T_(M). The following liposomes suspensions were used:MLVs liposomes concentration was of 130±10 mM, SUVs liposomesconcentration was of 35±5 mM.

Cartilage. Articular cartilage from freshly slaughtered and healthybovine was used for friction tests. Specimens of cartilage(approximately thickness of 3-4 mm) were removed from the surface usinga scalpel. Samples were kept at −20° C. until used. For each test twosamples were glued: one on the lower surface and the other on the uppersurface. Size of the lower surface was ˜0.8 cm² and size of the uppersurface was 0.14±0.02 cm². The cartilage samples were glued to theirholders using a cyanoacrylate-based glue.

Friction Testing. Friction testing was carried out using a CETR©tribometer, UMT model with high sensor which enables high normal loads.The system configuration was of a cartilage on a cartilage setup, inwhich two samples of bovine cartilage are immersed in HB, saline (0.9%w/v) or in synovial fluid (SF, obtained from the fresh bovine joints).The cartilage samples were subjected to relative sliding over a widerange of loads of 1 to 12 kg (10 to 120 N), equivalent to physiologicalpressures in joints (0.73±0.1 MPa to 8.75±1.25 MPa). The testingparameters were the following: Sliding velocity of 1 mm/sec, slidingamplitude of 1.5 mm and dwell time of 5 sec. Experiments were at roomtemperature (ca. 25±1 C)

The static friction coefficient is obtained from the maximum value fromthe shear trace, and the kinetic friction coefficient is calculated asthe average value at the sliding region. The data summaries are based onthe mean of 2-3 independent experiments (i.e. 2-3 fresh pairs ofcartilage surfaces) in each case, except for the synovial fluid control(1 experiment), and 40. back-and-forth cycles per measurement. Thecartilage surfaces were incubated for 30 mins in the liposome solutionsprior to friction measurements.

Phase transition temperature Short name Chemical name MW (T_(m)), ° C.POPC 1-palmitoyl-2-oleoyl- 760.1 -3 sn-glycero-3- phosphocholine DMPC1,2-dialyristoyl-sn- 677.9 23.2 glycero-3- phosphocholine HSPChydrogenated soybean 762.1 52.5 phosphocholine

The results of the lubrication experiments are shown in FIGS. 6A-B and7A-B. The trends of the friction data in the experiments with theliposomes were striking and very much in line with the earlier examplesdescribed in Tables 1 and 2 where the gel-phase liposomes were betterlubricants at high pressures. At the lower pressures, around 2.2 MPapressure (30N load), the dynamic friction coefficients of all threesystems (DMPC-MLV, POP-CMLV and HSPC-MLV) were similar to each other, inthe range CoF μ=0.032±0.007, with the DMPC-MLV at the lower part of thisrange and the POPC-MLV at the higher part of this range. At the highestpressures, around 8.8 MPa (which is comparable to the pressures in humanhips and knees), the values of the friction coefficients divergesignificantly: HSPC-MLV (gel-phase at the temperature of themeasurement) now had significantly lower CoF □≈0.02, compared with CoF□≈0.04 for the DMPC-MLV (liquid crystalline phase at the temperature ofthe measurements) and □≈0.085 for the POPC-MLV (liquid crystalline phaseat the temperature of measurements).

In the Figures:

FIG. 1 : Cryo-SEM image of the HSPC-SUV adsorbed on freshly cleaved micaas described in Methods section;

FIG. 2 : Part A: Normal force Fn vs. surface-separation D profilesbetween interacting HSPC-SUV coated mica surfaces. Profiles arenormalized as Fn/R in the Derjaguin approximation, by the mica curvatureradius R≈1 cm; the black line is the far-field force variation predictedby the DLVO model, (Fn(D)/R)=128pckBTk⁻¹ tan h² (ey0//kBT) exp (−kD),where c is the effective ion concentration, kB and T are Boltzmann'sconstant and the absolute temperature, k⁻¹ is the Debye screeninglength, e is the electronic charge and y0 the effective electrostaticpotential, derived from the far-field profile, at the interactingsurfaces (taken as the outer opposing liposome surfaces). For the bestfit shown, k⁻¹=66 nm corresponding to c=2.3×10⁻⁵M of a 1:1 electrolyte,and y0=120 mV. The inset compares profiles on a first approach (fullsymbols) and second approach (corresponding empty symbols) fromdifferent contact positions. Part B: The flattened interference fringesshown correspond to a pressure of 10±1 MPa (arrow in part A); theyprovide a direct section through the contact zone (schematically shownon the right of part B), and from such fringes the contact area A=pr²,and hence the mean pressure P=Fn/A, are evaluated;

FIG. 3 : Typical shear (or friction) force Fs vs. time traces betweenHSPC-SUV coated mica surfaces taken directly from SFB;

FIG. 4A: Friction forces Fs vs. applied loads Fn between twoHSPC-SUV-coated mica surfaces, based on traces such as in FIG. 3 .

FIG. 4B: Friction forces F_(s) variation with sliding velocity fordifferent compressions (◯ 74 atm;

94 atm; ▪ 107 atm;

118 atm) of HSPC-SUV coated mica surfaces showing little variationwithin the scatter over nearly 3 decades in v_(s).

FIG. 5A: Shear traces between two mica surfaces coated with SUV-DSPCliposomes in pure water, measured using the surface force balanceshowing the shear force Fs vs. time. The traces demonstrate the shearforce at different surface separations under various applied pressures.

FIG. 5B: Friction force vs. the applied normal load between two SUV-DSPCcoated mica surfaces, based on traces such as in 5A. The effectivefriction coefficient μ is calculated as μ=dFs/dFn directly from thegraph, and reveal the excellent lubrication capability of such SUV-DSPCsystem.

FIGS. 6A and 6B show Dynamic (6A) and Static (6B) Friction coefficientsvs. load (N) according to preferred embodiments of the invention forbovine articular cartilage surfaces following incubation in HSPC-MLV,DMPC-MLV, and POPC-MLV liposome solutions in histidine buffer.

FIGS. 7A and 7B show Dynamic and Static friction coefficients fordifferent systems (both controls and with liposomes) for a 30N load(FIG. 7A) and for a 120N load (FIG. 7B) between sliding bovine cartilagesurfaces according to preferred embodiments of the invention.

The invention claimed is:
 1. A method for lubricating one or morenon-biological surfaces of a replacement joint, comprising applyinggel-phase liposomes onto said one or more surfaces, wherein thetemperature of said surface(s) at the time of lubrication is below theliquid-crystalline to gel-phase transition temperature T_(m) of saidliposomes, wherein the gel-phase liposomes comprise two or morephosphatidylcholine lipids selected from the group consisting ofhydrogenated soy phosphatidylcholine (HSPC),1,2-distearoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine (DSPC) anddipalmitoylphosphatidylcholine (DPPC), wherein the molar ratio of thetwo or more phosphatidylcholine lipids being adjusted to produceliposomes having a T_(m) value of not less than 45° C. and wherein thepressure applied to the surface is above 3 MPa.
 2. The method accordingto claim 1, wherein the gel-phase liposomes have external polar headgroups which are composed of at least 95 mole % phosphocholine groups,and of up to 5 mole % external non-phosphocholine head groups having anunperturbed-end-to-end radius in aqueous medium equal to or smaller thanabout 1 nm.
 3. The method according to claim 2, wherein the gel-phaseliposomes comprise a first lipid, which is phosphocholine-containinglipid selected from the group consisting of HSPC, DSPC,dipalmitoylphosphatidylcholine (DPPC) and mixtures thereof, and a secondlipid, which carries trimethylammonium-propane (TAP) hydrophilic headgroup.
 4. The method according to claim 3, wherein the TAP-containinglipid is selected from the group consisting of 1,2ditetradecanoyl-3-trimethylammonium-propane (DMTAP), 1,2dipalmitoyl-3-dimethylammonium-propane and 1, 2-disteraroyl-3dimethylammonium-propane.
 5. The method according to claim 1, whereinthe gel-phase liposomes are in the form of small unilamellar vesicles(SUV) and have a mean diameter which is smaller than 100 nm.
 6. Themethod according to claim 1, wherein the gel-like liposomes are in theform of multilamellar vesicles (MLVs) and have a mean diameter which islarger than 200 nm.
 7. The method according to claim 1, wherein theliposomes are applied in an aqueous medium which is an aqueous saltsolution.
 8. The method according to claim 1, wherein the surface to belubricated is negatively-charged.
 9. The method according to claim 1,wherein the pressure applied to the surface is greater than 6 MPa.